The textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planing for preschool age children. This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary.
However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical, The text addresses the domains of physical, cognitive and social emotional development.
It is thorough and easy to read. The theories of development are inclusive to give the reader a broader understanding on how the domains of development are intertwined.
The content is comprehensive, well - researched and sequential. Each chapter begins with the learning outcomes for the upcoming material and closes with an outline of the topics covered. Furthermore, a look into the next chapter is discussed. The content is accurate, well - researched and unbiased. An historical context is provided putting content into perspective for the student. It appears to be unbiased.
Updated and accurate research is evidenced in the text. The text is written and organized in such a way that updates can be easily implemented. The author provides theoretical approaches in the psychological domains with examples along with real - life scenarios providing meaningful references invoking understanding by the student.
The text is written with clarity and is easily understood. The topics are sequential, comprehensive and and inclusive to all students. This content is presented in a cohesive, engaging, scholarly manner. The terminology used is appropriate to students studying Developmental Psychology spanning from birth through adolescents. The book's approach to the content is consistent and well organized.
Theoretical contexts are presented throughout the text. The text contains subheadings chunking the reading sections which can be assigned at various points throughout the course. The content flows seamlessly from one idea to the next. Written chronologically and subdividing each age span into the domains of psychology provides clarity without overwhelming the reader. The book begins with an overview of child development. Next, the text is divided logically into chapters which focus on each developmental age span.
The domains of each age span are addressed separately in subsequent chapters. Each chapter outlines the chapter objectives and ends with an outline of the topics covered and share an idea of what is to follow. Pages load clearly and consistently without distortion of text, charts and tables. Navigating through the pages is met with ease.
The text did not present with biases or insensitivity to cultural differences. Photos are inclusive of various cultures. The thoroughness, clarity and comprehensiveness promote an approach to Developmental Psychology that stands alongside the best of texts in this area.
I am confident that this text encompasses all the required elements in this area. This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence.
All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to In addition to being generally useful information for students who are parents, or who may go on to be parents, this text takes care to contextualize the psychological research in the lived experiences of children and their parents.
This is an approach that I find highly valuable. The text includes accurate information that is well-sourced. Relevant debates, controversies and historical context is also provided throughout which results in a rich, balanced text.
This text provides an excellent summary of classic and updated developmental work. While the majority of the text is skewed toward dated, classic work, some updated research is included.
Instructors may wish to supplement this text with more recent work, particularly that which includes diverse samples and specifically addresses topics of class, race, gender and sexual orientation see comment below regarding cultural aspects. The text is written in highly accessible language, free of jargon. Of particular value are the many author-generated tables which clearly organize and display critical information.
The authors have also included many excellent figures, which reinforce and visually organize the information presented. This text is consistent in its use of terminology. Balanced discussion of multiple theoretical frameworks are included throughout, with adequate space provided to address controversies and debates. The text is clearly organized and structured.
Each chapter is self-contained. In places where the authors do refer to prior or future chapters something that I find helps students contextualize their reading , a complete discussion of the topic is included. While this may result in repetition for students reading the text from cover to cover, the repetition of some content is not so egregious that it outweighs the benefit of a flexible, modular textbook.
Excellent, clear organization. This text closely follows the organization of published textbooks that I have used in the past for both lifespan and child development. As this text follows a chronological format, a discussion of theory and methods, and genetics and prenatal growth is followed by sections devoted to a specific age range: infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood preschool , middle childhood and adolescence.
Each age range is further split into three chapters that address each developmental domain: physical, cognitive and social emotional development. All text appears clearly and all images, tables and figures are positioned correctly and free of distortion. While this text provides adequate discussion of gender and cross-cultural influences on development, it is not sufficient.
This is not a problem unique to this text, and is indeed a critique I have of all developmental textbooks. In particular, in my view this text does not adequately address the role of race, class or sexual orientation on development. All in all, this is a comprehensive and well-written textbook that very closely follows the format of standard chronologically-organized child development textbooks.
This is a fantastic alternative for those standard texts, with the added benefit of language that is more accessible, and content that is skewed toward practical applications. The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the Introduction.
The principles of development were delineated and were thoroughly presented in a very understandable way. Nine theories were presented which gave the reader an understanding of the many authors who have contributed to Child Development. A good backdrop to start a conversation. This book discusses the early beginnings starting with Conception, Hereditary and Prenatal stages which provides a foundation for the future developmental stages such as infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence.
The three domains of developmental psychology — physical, cognitive and social emotional are entertained with each stage of development. This book is thoroughly researched and is written in a way to not overwhelm. Language is concise and easily understood. This book is a very comprehensive and detailed account of Child Growth and Development.
The author leaves no stone unturned. It has the essential elements addressed in each of the developmental stages. Thoroughly researched and well thought out. The content covered was accurate, error-free and unbiased. The content is very relevant to the subject of Child Growth and Development. It is comprehensive and thoroughly researched. The author has included a number of relevant subjects that highlight the three domains of developmental psychology, physical, cognitive and social emotional.
Topics are included that help the student see the relevancy of the theories being discussed. Any necessary updates along the way will be very easy and straightforward to insert. The text is easily understood. From the very beginning of this book, the author has given the reader a very clear message that does not overwhelm but pulls the reader in for more information.
The very first chapter sets a tone for what is to come and entices the reader to learn more. Well organized and jargon appropriate for students in a Developmental Psychology class.
This book has all the ingredients necessary to address Child Growth and Development. Even at the very beginning of the book the backdrop is set for future discussions on the stages of development. Theorists are mentioned and embellished throughout the book. A very consistent and organized approach. This book has all the features you would want. There are textbooks that try to cover too much in one chapter. In this book the sections are clearly identified and divided into smaller and digestible parts so the reader can easily comprehend the topic under discussion.
This book easily flows from one subject to the next. Blocks of information are being built, one brick on top of another as you move through the domains of development and the stages of development. This book starts out with a comprehensive overview in the introduction to child development.
From that point forward it is organized into the various stages of development and flows well. As mentioned previously the information is organized into building blocks as you move from one stage to the next. The text does not contain any significant interface issued.
There are no navigation problems. There is nothing that was detected that would distract or confuse the reader. This book is clearly a very comprehensive approach to Child Growth and Development.
It contains all the essential ingredients that you would expect in a discussion on this subject. At the very outset this book went into detail on the principles of development and included all relevant theories. I was never left with wondering why certain topics were left out. This is undoubtedly a well written, organized and systematic approach to the subject.
This book is organized by developmental stages infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and Malformations, Deformations, or Alteration of Body Proportions In these cases, short stature is only a part of the clinical picture.
This group includes children with skeletal dysplasias, some of neonatal onset e. Dysmorphic syndromes and chromosomal disorders are well described in books specially dedicated to their clinical identification.
In the Absence of Dysmorphism, with Normal Body Proportions Extreme Variations of Normality Extreme variation of normality includes two conditions: familial short stature and delayed maturation. Both are normal conditions and the most frequent diagnosis made in clinical practice. A diagnosis of familial short stature FSS is made in normal children older than 2 years, with no underlying disease, normal physical examination, and normal growth velocity.
Height is usually within —2. For example, in a child whose height Z-score is —2. In FSS, predicted final height using the most common methods26 is within the genetical range. If both mother and son were on the 50th centile 0 Z-score as adults, we would expect the son to be 13 cm taller than his mother.
A 50th centile daughter would be expected to be 13 cm smaller than her 50th centile father. The height of the parents should be actually measured in the clinic, since parental height by hearsay has proven to be quite unreliable,27 and consequently, the estimated genetic range is expected to be wider.
A diagnosis of delayed maturation is made in children with late onset of puberty, delayed skeletal maturation, or both with no other abnormal feature and normal height velocity. Both conditions usually are present but not always, since bone age does not correlate well with pubertal events with the exception of menarcheal age. Predicted height is within the normal parental height, however, it is very common that, during puberty, the acceleration of bone age is below the predicted one.
On average, children with delayed maturation attain a height some distance below their genetic target. Physical examination is normal, and growth velocity is also normal during childhood. This diagnosis is more frequently made in boys than in girls, which may be a reflection of problems in self-esteem and psychosocial integration, especially in puberty. Birth length is related more to the height the child attains in childhood or at maturity, whereas birth weight is strongly related to neonatal mortality and morbidity.
A proportion of children who have growth retardation catch up in postnatal life, either during the first years or even during childhood. If the impairment took place in the first trimester, as happens in congenital rubella, then the probability of catching up is almost nonexistent, and at school age, the child will have the same growth deficit as at birth.
In between these two extreme situations are many intermediate conditions. Preterm babies born with normal weight for their gestational age can also be small during the first year of life, but due to a different mechanism;30 growth delay after birth. The growth assessment of preterm babies should include the use of a chart that allows for an age calculation based on gestational age.
Figure shows an example of such chart, where the X-axis indicates the age, in terms of postconception age. The menstrual period is an indicator of the time of conception, which is why this age is called the postconception age.
This age is marked in the chart until 92 weeks, exactly 1 year after term i. Curve a of Figure shows the postnatal growth of a baby born at 32 weeks gestation with a birth weight of g. This birth weight is located on the 25th centile, hence, the child has an adequate weight for gestational age. This baby spent 3 months in an incubator, during which time he had many complications feeding, respiratory, and metabolic problems.
His growth curve could not be kept within the centile lines in which he was born, and his growth rate was slower than normal during the period 28—41 weeks postconception. Afterward, when he became easier to feed, he started recovering weight and finally experienced a complete catchup growth. In this baby as in many others , three phases of growth can be identified the first period with a growth retardation, followed by a second period of catch-up, and then a third period with a normal growth rate.
Not all preterm babies grow this way. Some of them, like curve b, may not catch-up and remain with a height deficit during the rest of their infancy and childhood. These children may present at later ages for short stature. Their clinical examination and growth velocity at later ages is normal, and unless a careful perinatal history is taken, the cause of their short stature may remain obscure.
Immediate postnatal growth of newborn groups in institutions is a good indicator of the quality of perinatal care, and in my view, standard and comparable ways of evaluating it should be developed as positive indicators of perinatal care and as an important complement to neonatal mortality.
Malnutrition Primary malnutrition is consequence of reduced nutritional intake either predominantly proteins, predominantly calories, or both , strongly associated with unfavorable socioeconomic conditions. Kwashiorkor predominantly protein deficiency Growth in Infancy and Childhood: A Pediatric Approach 41 and marasmus predominantly calorie deficiency are perhaps the most frequent causes of growth impairment in the world. They are frequently observed in developing countries33 and in inner cities and marginal groups of developed countries.
The severity of the growth deficiency is proportional to the severity of the nutritional deficit. Depending on the duration and quality of protein and energy deficiency and the relative impact on growth in weight and height, two main types of malnutrition can be recognized: stunting and wasting. Stunting, assessed by the height-for-age index, is an indicator of past nutrition. It is not necessarily associated with a higher risk of disease and death.
Recent research has suggested that body composition in late childhood may be associated with the relative intake of energy and proteins in early life. This association may in turn be related to the influence of the early diet on hormone secretion. Maternal deprivation, lack of adequate nutrition, and other factors may intervene in this entity, in combination with deficit in the swallowing function, deficiency of micronutrients, and the like.
There may be reduced growth velocity in weight, height, or both. Type 2 PD applies to children older than 3—4 years of age, in whom nutritional deficiencies are not apparent, and the underlying mechanism is thought to be growth hormone deficiency. The most frequent entities seen in practice are severe asthma, malabsorption e. The mechanisms underlying growth delay in these entities are varied, such as reduced nutritional intake secondary to anorexia, malabsorption, volume-limited intake , metabolic disbalance, hypoxia, chronic metabolic acidosis protein loss, and not infrequently, the treatment itself.
With the progress of therapeutic resources in medicine and the consequent reduction in mortality, the impact of the chronic disease on growth is becoming more and more important. A major one is adrenal steroids, widely used in asthma, nephrotic syndrome, lupus, and many other chronic diseases. Any dose greater than the physiological one may delay growth, and the magnitude of the retardation is proportional to the dose and the duration of the treatment.
Doctors know that sometimes a high price is paid for achieving a successful treatment, and in these cases, a continuous balance between the need to maintain the patient in an asymptomatic state and allow a normal pattern of growth has to be permanently maintained.
Other drugs, such as cytostatics, can affect growth. Cranial irradiation used in the treatment of tumors of the central nervous system and leukemia can damage the hypothalamic functions. Such damage has implications for the release of both hypothalamic and pituitary hormones, not the least of which is growth hormone. Endocrine Conditions These problems are discussed in Chapter It provides a longitudinal, sequential, and prospective view of the human being during the most evolving and dynamic period in human life.
Nidia Escobal and Virginia Fano for their valuable suggestions to the manuscript. Johnston F. Somatic growth of the infant and pre-school child. Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, 2nd ed. New York: Plenum, Vol. Karlberg J. Acta Paed Scand. Brook CGD. Clinical Paediatric Endocrinology. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Revised standards for triceps and subscapular skinfolds in British children. Arch Dis Childh. Hormonal, genetic and environmental factors controlling growth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, — Walton A, Hammond J.
Maternal effects on growth and conformation in Shire horse—Shetland pony crosses. Proceedings of the Royal Society ;15B In: Ounsted M, Ounsted C eds. Clinics in Developmental Medicine, no. Shifting linear growth during infancy: Illustration of genetic factors in growth from fetal life through infancy. Catch-up growth following illness or starvation. Growth as a target-seeking function.
Catch-up and catch-down growth in man. An analysis of the mid growth and adolescent spurts of height based on acceleration. Analysis of the growth spurt at age 7 mid-growth spurt. Helv Paed. Tanner JM, Cameron N. Investigation of the mid-growth spurt in height, weight and limb circumferences in single-year velocity data from the London — growth survey.
Body mass index reference curves for the UK, Arch Dis Child. Int J Obes. Adiposity indices in children. Am J Clin Nutr. Lejarraga H, Orfila G. Use and abuse of growth standards. Roche SG, Fomon S. Long term consequences of growth retardation during early childhood.
In: Hernandez M, Argente J eds. Human Growth: Basic and Clinical Aspects. International Congress Series London: Excerpta Medica, — Barker JP. In utero programming of chronic disease. Clin Sci. Lucas A. Programming by early nutrition in man. The Childhood Environment and Adult Disease. New York: Wiley, — Programming of growth hormone secretion and bone mineral density in elderly men: A hypothesis. J Clin Endoc Metab. McCance RA. Food, growth and time.
Jones KL. New York: Saunders, Winter RM, Baraitser M. London Dysmorphology Database. Cameron N. The prediction of adult height. Essays on Auxology. Lejarraga H. Validity of reported parental height in growth clinics in Buenos Aires.
Brandt I. Growth dynamics of low birth weight infants. Lejarraga H, Peckham C. Birth weight and subsequent growth of children exposed to congenital rubella in utero. Growth dynamics of low birth weight infants with emphasis on the perinatal period. Human growth, nutrition and health status in sub-Saharan Africa.
Year Phys Anthropol. The presentation and use of height and weight data for comparing the nutritional status of groups of children under the age of 10 years. Bull WHO. Influence of macronutrients on adiposity development: A follow up study on nutrition and growth from 10 months to 8 years of age. Preece M. Growth in chronic diseases. Figure shows a typical example of the growth in height of a girl between 3 and 18 years old data from the Belgian Growth Study of the Normal Child The upper part is a plot of the height-for-age data distance curve , while the lower part shows the increments in height over 1-year intervals; that is, a proxy for velocity in growth.
Actually, the yearly increments reflect average velocity in the considered interval while, strictly speaking, the term velocity refers to instantaneous velocity; that is, the first derivative of a smooth distance curve. Despite this, the terms increments and velocities are often intermixed, such as in this text. The horizontal bars in the graph indicate the length of the intervals over which the increments were calculated.
It is common practice to calculate increments from measurements no less than 0. Increments calculated over shorter periods reflect seasonal variation and are relatively more affected by measurement error.
The upper part shows a plot of the height-for-age data distance curve , while the lower part shows the yearly increments in height velocity curve. The horizontal bars indicate the length of the intervals. The age at minimal velocity before puberty age at takeoff, TO is considered as the onset of the pubertal growth spurt. Maximum velocity in height or peak height velocity is reached within 3—3.
The difference in age at takeoff and age at peak velocity PV can be used as a measure of the duration of the adolescent spurt. After Adolescence: Somatic Growth and Sex Differences 47 having reached a peak, the growth velocity rapidly decreases, inducing the end of the growth cycle at full maturity, around 16—17 years for girls and 18—19 years for boys in Western populations.
There is a wide variation among populations, individuals and the two sexes as to the attained size at each age, the timing of events such as adolescent growth spurt, and the age at which mature size is reached. The growth curve of height shown in Figure is typical for all post-cranial skeletal dimensions of the body. Increase in weight of a girl no. The upper part shows a plot of the weight-for-age data distance curve , while the lower part shows the yearly increments in weight velocity curve.
FIGURE 48 Human Growth and Development Increase in weight has a different pattern, in the sense that the start of the adolescent growth spurt in weight does not correspond with the age of minimal increment in weight before puberty. Most children show the lowest annual increase in weight in late infancy or early childhood, around 2—3 years old. The pattern of increase in weight and weight velocity shown by the data of the girl in Figure illustrates these typical features very well.
In this example, the sudden change in velocity of weight between childhood and puberty can be identified at The precise location of the onset of the adolescent growth spurt is generally more problematic and subjective for weight than it is for height.
A third major type of growth pattern is seen in the dimensions of the head. The growth pattern for head circumference, between 1 month and 18 years of age, is exemplified in Figure Thereafter, yearly increments in head circumference fluctuate between a few millimeters and 1 cm per year and no spurt is noticeable at puberty.
This value is very close to the mean percentage of adult head circumference reached at 3 years of age in most populations. Very similar patterns are observed for other head dimensions such as head length and head width in both boys and girls. Serial measurements of height, for instance, form a basis for estimating the supposed underlying continuous growth curve of stature. However, recent studies have shown that frequent measurements of size at daily or weekly intervals with high precision techniques such as knemometry with a measurement error of about 0.
Nevertheless, for the description of the general shape of the growth curve in height, based on body measurements taken with classical techniques at intervals varying between several months and 1 year, we can readily assume that the growth process is continuous. Various mathematical models have been proposed to estimate a smooth growth curve on the basis of a set of discrete measurements of growth of the same subject over time.
The upper part shows a plot of the head circumference-for-age data distance curve , while the lower part shows the yearly increments in head circumference velocity curve. FIGURE to describe part or all of the human growth process, only a small number of which are of practical use. The possibilities and limitations to commonly used mathematical functions for analyzing human growth have recently been discussed.
Parameters of nonlinear growth models usually allow some functional interpretation of the growth curve. In the case of PB1, parameter h1 is the upper asymptote of the function and thus corresponds to an estimate of mature size. Parameters s0 and s1 are rate constants controlling, respectively, prepubertal and pubertal growth velocity. The parameter estimation of nonlinear growth functions like the PB1 curve are usually obtained by nonlinear least-squares techniques based on numerical minimization algorithms, such as the simplex,20 Marquardt,21 and Gauss22 methods.
Most statistical and several graphical software programs now offer the possibility of nonlinear regression analysis of user-entered functions. Hence, growth modeling or curve fitting is a technique by which longitudinal growth data can be summarized in a limited number of constants, which have the same meaning for all subjects, thus allowing easy comparison among individuals.
Likewise, when entering the parameter values into the first derivative of the growth model, one obtains an estimation of the instantaneous growth velocity.
The lower part of Figure shows a plot of the yearly increments together with the instantaneous velocity curve obtained as the mathematical first derivative of the fitted distance curve. The values of the function parameters for this example are given in Table The upper part shows a plot of the height-for-age data together with the Preece-Baines model 1, while the lower part shows the yearly increments in weight with the first derivative of the fitted curve.
FIGURE data if the standard error of estimate is of the same order of magnitude as the measurement error of the trait under consideration typically 0. Systematic bias can be estimated as the test runs.
Growth variables that do not necessarily have a monotonously increasing pattern such as weight, body mass index, skinfolds cannot be successfully described by structural models such as nonlinear growth functions. Nonstructural approaches, such as polynomials, smoothing splines, and kernel estimations are more appropriate for these kinds of traits. Table also shows a number of biological parameters that were derived from the fitted curve shown in Figure Biological parameters, obtained by fitting a growth model, characterize the shape of the human growth curve and form a basis for studies of genetic and environmental factors that control the dynamics of human growth.
One should be suspicious about estimations of final size by structural growth models in cases where the growth data give no clear indication that the end of the growth phase is nearby. Leastsquares techniques are hopelessly weak in fitting parameters beyond the observation range and thus inapt to extrapolate. Analogous problems may arise when the lower bound of the age range does not include the takeoff of the adolescent growth spurt.
In such a situation, the estimation of the age at takeoff and all derived biological parameters by a PB1 fit are not under control of the data and likely to be erroneous. A possible solution to the problem of extrapolation, like the prediction of mature stature and also to the problem of incomplete data , is by using Bayesian estimations instead of least-squares techniques for the parameter estimation.
Tempo of growth, or maturation rate, is correlated with other markers of maturation, such as secondary sexual characteristics and bone age. Figure shows a theoretical example of the main effects of variation in tempo on the shape of the human growth curve. The figure shows the distance and velocity curves for the stature of typical early, average, and late-maturing children having the same size at birth and adulthood.
These three theoretical subjects have, so to speak, the same potential for reaching a certain mature size, but they differ considerably in height at all ages along their growth period and in the shape of their growth pattern.
We can see that the early maturer reaches final size earlier and is taller than the average maturer throughout childhood and adolescence.
In turn, the average maturer reaches adult size earlier and is taller than the late maturer. The effects of differences in tempo of growth on attained height increase with age and are most apparent in periods where the slope of the growth curve is steepest. Therefore, variation in maturation rate affects attained height mostly during the adolescent period. The relationship between the shape of the growth curve and the tempo of growth, as depicted in the preceding theoretical example, is also reflected in real population data.
Longitudinal studies have repeatedly shown that little or no correlation exists between the timing of the pubertal spurt and adult stature; that is, early, average, and late-maturing children reach, on average, the same adult height. Early maturing children are, on average, heavier than late-maturing children.
The opposite is seen in late-maturing children. This relationship is reflected in the negative correlation between peak velocity and age at peak velocity in height and several other traits.
Similar findings were reported by Byard, Guo, and Roche41 on the basis of an analysis of familial resemblance in growth curve parameters in the Fels Longitudinal Growth Study.
Tanner42 suggested that both the growth status and the tempo of growth are under genetic control but that the genetic factors might be quite different. Despite the strong genetic control over tempo of growth, there is also evidence that the human body can adapt to adverse environmental conditions by slowing down the developmental growth rate, probably allowing a child to better cope with the physiological and metabolic requirements for a balanced development in suboptimal situations.
Typical examples of this were found for children exposed to chronic mild undernutrition,46 chronic diseases such as asthma,47 psychosocial stress, socioeconomic deprivation,51 and living at high altitude. Final stature is usually not affected i. However, the great majority of growth studies are cross-sectional; that is, based on single growth measurements taken from individuals who differ in age.
These centile lines form the basis of growth standards and reference curves see Chapter Despite the immense merits of cross-sectional growth surveys in constructing growth standards and in epidemiological studies of the genetic and environmental factors involved in growth, they can give only a static picture of the population variation in growth variables and are hopelessly weak in providing information on the dynamics of individual growth patterns over time.
The variation in the tempo of growth means that a cross-sectional mean curve, to some extent, smoothes out the phenomenon of the adolescent growth spurt. An example of two boys. The two subjects differ in timing of their adolescent growth spurt, the age at maximum increment in height being at, respectively, By taking the averages of the heights at each age, without taking account of this difference in timing of the adolescent growth spurt, one comes up with an average curve that does not show the steep slope at adolescence, seen in each individual curve.
The effect of taking the cross-sectional mean becomes even more striking by a comparison of the yearly increments in height of the two curves with the average of these yearly increments. While the two individuals show a clear adolescent spurt with a maximum yearly increment in height of respectively 9.
By the way, the mean velocity curve in Figure corresponds exactly to a plot of the increments of the means. This illustrates that the pattern of individual growth differs a lot from the pattern of cross-sectional mean growth, especially during adolescence. It is also the reason why the growth records of an individual over time do not match any of the centile lines shown by cross-sectional growth charts and why such charts are not useful to evaluate the normality of the pattern of growth over time.
Pure cross-sectional growth standards are also called unconditioned for tempo. The differences between individual and average growth have long been recognized Boas, , and Shuttleworth, , are cited by Tanner28 , but it was not until the mids that Tanner, Whitehouse, and Takaishi7,54 introduced tempo-conditioned growth standards for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity based on longitudinal data of the British population.
Figure A illustrates this technique and its effect on average height velocity of the two boys shown in Figure , after their height measurements were peak height velocity centered. The so-obtained mean velocity curve indeed has a pattern that can be considered representative for both individuals; that is, with an age at peak velocity and a peak velocity that is the average of the two subjects.
Later on, Tanner and Davies4 produced clinical longitudinal standards for height and height velocity in North American children using the same graphical principle as in their British standards. Wachholder and Hauspie,2,3 on the contrary, used a technique, derived from curve fitting, to achieve similar goals when producing clinical standards for growth and growth velocity in the Belgian population. The mean-constant curves were obtained by fitting the Preece-Baines model 1 to each individual in the sample and feeding the mean values of the function parameters into the model.
The resulting mean-constant curve represents the growth pattern of the typical average child in the population; that is, with a peak velocity and an age at peak velocity characteristic or typical for the group. Figure B shows the PB1 velocity curves of the same two boys together with their mean-constant curve. Note that the PB1 curves slightly underestimate peak velocity, a minor weakness of the PB1 model that has been acknowledged elsewhere. B PB1 velocity curves of two boys together with the mean-constant curve.
Because of the 2-year difference in age of onset of the pubertal spurt, , , and year-old European girls are, on average, taller and heavier than the boys of the same age.
Similar findings were reported for Asian Indians. Most of our knowledge on sex differences in growth is derived from crosssectional data, which allow us to estimate fairly accurately the sex differences during infancy, childhood, and adulthood, as well as the points of intersection between the male and female average growth curve.
However, for reasons explained already, cross-sectional data poorly reflect individual growth and longitudinal data is needed to understand the manner in which sex differences in size arise during the growth process. As an example, Figure shows the sex differences in the mean-constant curves for Belgian boys and girls. Note that takeoff is pointed out by a black dot. We consider prepubertal growth as the size achieved up to the age at takeoff, while adolescent growth or adolescent gain is the amount of growth achieved between takeoff and adulthood.
Figure illustrates how the sex difference in adult size D can be decomposed into three additive components: DA: The difference in adolescent gain between boys and girls. Using this technique, Hauspie et al. The results are summarized in Table Slightly different values for these components may be found in other populations.
In West Bengal children, for instance, Hauspie 60 Human Growth and Development Boys DA D Girls Height, cm DT DP 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Age, years Decomposition of sex differences in adult stature into three additive components see text for explanation of abbreviations. On the contrary, for shoulder width boys have a relatively larger increase during adolescence than girls.
As far as hip width is concerned, adult sex differences are almost negligible. Sex differences in shoulder width is in equal amounts due to the delay in onset of the growth spurt and greater adolescent gain in the boys. Finally, sex differences in hip width are negligible in adulthood and also before puberty. Acta Paed Belg. Wachholder A, Hauspie RC. Clinical standards for growth in height of Belgian boys and girls aged 2 to 18 years.
Int J Anthropol. Hauspie RC, Wachholder A. Clinical standards for growth velocity in height of Belgian boys and girls, aged 2 to 18 years. Clinical longitudinal standards for height and height velocity for North American children. An analysis of the phases of mid-childhood growth by synchronisation of growth spurts. In: Tanner JM ed. Auxology 88, Perspectives in the Science of Growth and Development. London: Smith-Gordon, — The analysis of individual and average growth curves: Some methodological aspects.
Kinanthropometry IV. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity: British children, Part I. Twiesselmann F. Paris: Librairie Maloine, Hermanussen M.
The analysis of short-term growth. Hormone Research. Lampl M. London: SmithGordon, Marubini E, Milani S. Approaches to the analysis of longitudinal data.
Human Growth—A Comprehensive Treatise, 2nd ed. New York: Plenum, — Hauspie RC. Mathematical models for the study of individual growth patterns. Curve fitting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, — Modelling individual and average human growth data from childhood to adulthood.
Hauspie R, Chrzastek-Spruch H. Growth models: Possibilities and limitations. Human Growth in Context. Bock RD. Predicting the mature stature of preadolescent children. In: Susanne C ed. New York and London: Plenum, 3— Asymptotic models for the longitudinal growth of human stature. Am J Hum Biol. Nelder JA, Mead R. A simplex method for function minimisation. Computer J. Marquardt DW. An algorithm for least squares estimation of non-linear parameters. J Soc Indust Appl Math. Bard Y. Non-linear Parameter Estimation.
Siegel S. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. London: McGraw-Hill, Velocity and acceleration of height growth using kernel estimation. Analysis of the adolescent growth spurt using smoothing spline functions. Statistical problems of fitting individual growth curves. Human Growth and Development, Third Edition includes contributions from the well-known experts in the field and is the most reputable, comprehensive resource available. New chapters include the impact of physical activity across childhood and adolescence, information on the evolution of the human growth pattern and the contribution of epigenetics to our understanding of human growth Offers the necessary tools to connect human development data with predictive medicine Provides extensive depth on content in the form of easily digestible lecture length chapters.
Download Perspectives In Human Growth Development And Maturation books , One morning in , out of the blue, I received a letter which both distressed and astonished me. It was from a Prof. Das in Calcutta, who requested me to accept, for eventual analysis, a mountain of anthropometric data he had accumulated, as he was ill and did not expect to survive to analyse it himself.
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